Culture and Rural Development
By Nontlantla Skenjana
The Eastern Cape Province has been in an expectant mode since the announcement by President Zuma that rural development would be a priority of government in 2009.This is not surprising considering the fact that the province is 70% rural, although regional development levels differ due to past imbalances. However, there are now greater prospects for the Central and North-Eastern Cape as most of the area is dominated by rural towns spread across the region and extremely high levels of poverty and unemployment. This can be attributed to the former homeland system where communities depended on migrant labour for subsistence. However, this region also prides itself in the rich culture of AmaXhosa cutting across the tribes that exist in the nation, such as amaBhaca, abaThembu, amaBomvana, amaMpondomise, amaHlubi, amaMpondo, amaXesibe, amaXhosa and amaMfengu. The continued existence of these groupings is also partly a legacy of the homeland system that encouraged settlements along ‘tribal’ lines. As a result, Mthatha became synonymous with abaThembu, Mount Ayliff with amaXesibe, while Butterworth was an amaMfengu territory. The distinctions have significantly diminished owing to intermarriages, shared values, heritage, traditions and customs. The cultural make up of the region is reflective of these shared values and customary traits.
Chambers and Conway (1991: 22-23) identify three objectives of rural development: enhancing capability, improving equity and increasing social sustainability. Coombs and Ahmed (1974: 234) argue that the goal of rural development is not only about increasing agricultural production and economic growth, but includes equitable distribution of land and income, employment, health, housing, education, general living conditions, public participation and urban-rural integration. It has been an argument of social scientists that for any development to be effective, it must be driven by the people who want to be developed. It is therefore safe to say, for the capacity, equity and social sustainability to be enhanced as envisaged above, the rural communities must spearhead the process.
Poostchi (1986: 335-7) explores a number of definitions of culture in his research on rural development and the developing countries. Amongst the many definitions, the following are key to the conception of culture:
- A learned behaviour that is passed down from one generation to another through non-hereditary means.
- The influence of relationships relating to families, clans, tribes, class, nations, religion, as culture can be transmitted through socialisation and learning.
- In ‘primitive societies’ it is driven by the needs of people, be they religious, economic or social, leading to institutionalisation (Traditional Councils) as a strategy for survival where a particular people will be identified with the food they eat, modes of socialising and a particular way of economic participation.
In agreement with Poostchi, Mbakogu (2004) also argues that culture is created in the process of adjustment to the social setting. This process of adjustment is manifested through language, food, arts, traditions and customs and social activities. The Eastern Cape rural areas are divided into two: the commercial farming areas mainly in the central and south Eastern Cape, and the previously disadvantaged rural communities leaning towards the North of the province. This article concentrates more on the latter.
In terms of the culture, there are stronger and more distinct cultural ties in the rural North and an integration of cultures in the more urban South. This can be seen in the food consumed, where maize and maize products form the staple diet with the famous dishes such as uMngqusho (Samp and Beans) and umvubo (sour milk salad). Therefore, throughout the maize season, there are multiple uses of maize at all its growth stages. For example, in late summer and early autumn new corn is prepared as a snack and later it is grilled on coals. It is also used to prepare special dishes, such as corn bread and bean soup. After harvest the maize is used as feed for chicken and pigs, and also milled for maize meal and samp. As a result, maize production is susceptible to theft throughout its maturity process, especially in communities where families live below the poverty line. However, where communities are able to own and see the direct benefits of a maize growing project, they will protect their interest.
Language, arts, tradition and customs are some of the most powerful aspects of culture in rural development. Although there are small areas that have mixed languages, such as Aliwal North and Matatiele/Sterkspruit, where there is a significant population of Sothos, the main language in the province is isiXhosa. This is favourable because there are high illiteracy levels in the rural areas, and language barriers would be adverse to the development agenda.
Although the different tribes may differ in how certain customs are performed within their clans, there is a general understanding beyond tribal lines as a result of relationships that have been built over generations and through intermarriage (as noted above). For example, it is commonly known that June and December are the circumcision seasons throughout the province. This means that for rural communities that are widely dispersed with small populations it may be difficult for development practitioners to organise communities at these times. Firstly, most people within a village will be related by clan, marriage or kinship. Secondly, most young people, particularly the young men will be participating in these events and may be unavailable. This may lead to a belief that they are apathetic to development, although that is not necessarily the case.
There are also social activities that take place and have become accepted as a way of life within communities, such as ukubhuqisa (allowing cattle into the fields after harvest) and ukubabela (burning of the grass/veld fires), which take place in winter. These activities are mainly driven by the livestock farming concerns. Ukubhuqisa has its benefits; during winter when the land is extremely dry, the livestock have access to food and simultaneously provide manure for the fields. However, this season is also synonymous with falling fences as livestock try to jump into the fields. Shepherds are often accused of cutting the fencing so the livestock can have convenient access.
Deliberate veld fires are motivated by the desire to speed up the process of growth for new grass for livestock. However, these have been known to destroy crops that have not yet been harvested, burning down forests and also destroying the poles that are used to fence the fields. This results in high maintenance costs for those involved in agricultural development, although it can be avoided.
The dawning of democracy in South Africa introduced other dynamics within communities. The most enduring is the culture of entitlement and political affiliation and influence. Politics has become very significant in rural development circles and therefore it is crucial that the proper protocols are followed in introducing and implementing rural development projects. It is not rare that developments are stopped, because protocols were not observed. This is important, especially since the introduction of local government structures into communities that also have traditional authorities. While the constitution allows the co-existence of these structures, the implementation of its provisions has not been smooth as it has shaken the foundations of traditional institutions and decision-making processes. Particularly because traditional authorities have felt sidelined for a long time.
There is a conscious effort now from all parties to be inclusive and complementary. It is common for community meetings called by the Ward Councillor to be held at the Chieftaincy. The traditional institutions were also challenged, because of structures that had limited or discriminatory gender practices leaving women with limited rights and decision-making powers. This had led to a dramatic shift within traditional structures to involve women in all their activities; the latest attempt being the institutionalisation of democratic and gender-representative tribal councils. This process will hopefully help communities to adjust to the contemporary social setting.
Another shift is the one that was perpetuated by the apartheid government where the labour force could only be employed in urban areas. As alluded to before, this is one of the major characteristics of the previously disadvantaged rural areas. This is accentuated by the low levels of schooling, and how young unemployed people have adopted a culture of crime to sustain high levels of alcohol consumption and drug abuse. There needs to be a shift through the creation of employment opportunities and a provision of services in rural areas that are attractive enough to keep young people attracted. Many households are currently dependent on social grants and have to travel to urban centres for all government services. Although necessary, reliance on social grants has created a culture of dependence on government and as a result rural development practitioners have a responsibility of raising awareness and encouraging communities to utilise their resources wisely for the present and posterity.
From the above arguments, it is clear that development and culture are interlinked, and cannot be separated. Any culture will greatly influence the participation in current developments, because it is shaped by their historical experiences and how they relate to each other and neighbouring areas. In recent years there has been greater admiration of culture in development circles as more emphasis has been put on people involvement and the use of available resources in sustainable development.
The emergence of eco-tourism and rural-based tourism has created a cultural and economic opportunity for rural communities to celebrate the uniqueness of their land, language and customs. Another opportunity is presented by the entrenching of development facilitation in all developments. This contributes towards non-formal developmental education, which encourages communities to take part in decision-making and shaping the cultural development of the people. Coombs and Ahmed (1974:235) argue that non-formal education is an indispensable and potent instrument of rural development. For example, in a previously fragmented society, such as South Africa, people are sceptical of any developments and if proper consultation is not done, development projects could be obstructed by the beneficiaries making them unsustainable.
Where a community through the years has learnt to fight for survival to the extent of getting into criminal means of battle, development practitioners must be aware that the community may utilise those strategies to their detriment, which could lead to theft, destruction and new development projects that are not sustainable. It is therefore crucial for any rural development practitioner within the Eastern Cape to be familiar with what defines the culture of the rural populations before interventions are done so as to mitigate any possible risk as far as possible.
REFERENCES:
• Coetzee J., Graaf J., Hendricks F. and Wood G., 2001. Development - Theory, Policy and Practice. Cape Town: Oxford University Press
• Chambers R. & Conway G.R. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century. Presented as IDS Discussion Paper 296, December 1991. Institute for Development Studies.
• Coombs & Ahmed, 1974. Attacking Rural Poverty. USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press
• Poostchi I., 1986. Rural Development and the Developing Countries. Canada: The Alger Press Limited
• Mbakogu I.A., 2004. Is there really a relationship between Culture and Development? Anthropologist, vol 6, pg 37-43. Kamla-Raj. Accessed from: www.krepublishers.com/.../Anth-06-1-037-043-2004-Mbakogu.pdf
The Eastern Cape Province has been in an expectant mode since the announcement by President Zuma that rural development would be a priority of government in 2009.This is not surprising considering the fact that the province is 70% rural, although regional development levels differ due to past imbalances. However, there are now greater prospects for the Central and North-Eastern Cape as most of the area is dominated by rural towns spread across the region and extremely high levels of poverty and unemployment. This can be attributed to the former homeland system where communities depended on migrant labour for subsistence. However, this region also prides itself in the rich culture of AmaXhosa cutting across the tribes that exist in the nation, such as amaBhaca, abaThembu, amaBomvana, amaMpondomise, amaHlubi, amaMpondo, amaXesibe, amaXhosa and amaMfengu. The continued existence of these groupings is also partly a legacy of the homeland system that encouraged settlements along ‘tribal’ lines. As a result, Mthatha became synonymous with abaThembu, Mount Ayliff with amaXesibe, while Butterworth was an amaMfengu territory. The distinctions have significantly diminished owing to intermarriages, shared values, heritage, traditions and customs. The cultural make up of the region is reflective of these shared values and customary traits.
Chambers and Conway (1991: 22-23) identify three objectives of rural development: enhancing capability, improving equity and increasing social sustainability. Coombs and Ahmed (1974: 234) argue that the goal of rural development is not only about increasing agricultural production and economic growth, but includes equitable distribution of land and income, employment, health, housing, education, general living conditions, public participation and urban-rural integration. It has been an argument of social scientists that for any development to be effective, it must be driven by the people who want to be developed. It is therefore safe to say, for the capacity, equity and social sustainability to be enhanced as envisaged above, the rural communities must spearhead the process.
Poostchi (1986: 335-7) explores a number of definitions of culture in his research on rural development and the developing countries. Amongst the many definitions, the following are key to the conception of culture:
- A learned behaviour that is passed down from one generation to another through non-hereditary means.
- The influence of relationships relating to families, clans, tribes, class, nations, religion, as culture can be transmitted through socialisation and learning.
- In ‘primitive societies’ it is driven by the needs of people, be they religious, economic or social, leading to institutionalisation (Traditional Councils) as a strategy for survival where a particular people will be identified with the food they eat, modes of socialising and a particular way of economic participation.
In agreement with Poostchi, Mbakogu (2004) also argues that culture is created in the process of adjustment to the social setting. This process of adjustment is manifested through language, food, arts, traditions and customs and social activities. The Eastern Cape rural areas are divided into two: the commercial farming areas mainly in the central and south Eastern Cape, and the previously disadvantaged rural communities leaning towards the North of the province. This article concentrates more on the latter.
In terms of the culture, there are stronger and more distinct cultural ties in the rural North and an integration of cultures in the more urban South. This can be seen in the food consumed, where maize and maize products form the staple diet with the famous dishes such as uMngqusho (Samp and Beans) and umvubo (sour milk salad). Therefore, throughout the maize season, there are multiple uses of maize at all its growth stages. For example, in late summer and early autumn new corn is prepared as a snack and later it is grilled on coals. It is also used to prepare special dishes, such as corn bread and bean soup. After harvest the maize is used as feed for chicken and pigs, and also milled for maize meal and samp. As a result, maize production is susceptible to theft throughout its maturity process, especially in communities where families live below the poverty line. However, where communities are able to own and see the direct benefits of a maize growing project, they will protect their interest.
Language, arts, tradition and customs are some of the most powerful aspects of culture in rural development. Although there are small areas that have mixed languages, such as Aliwal North and Matatiele/Sterkspruit, where there is a significant population of Sothos, the main language in the province is isiXhosa. This is favourable because there are high illiteracy levels in the rural areas, and language barriers would be adverse to the development agenda.
Although the different tribes may differ in how certain customs are performed within their clans, there is a general understanding beyond tribal lines as a result of relationships that have been built over generations and through intermarriage (as noted above). For example, it is commonly known that June and December are the circumcision seasons throughout the province. This means that for rural communities that are widely dispersed with small populations it may be difficult for development practitioners to organise communities at these times. Firstly, most people within a village will be related by clan, marriage or kinship. Secondly, most young people, particularly the young men will be participating in these events and may be unavailable. This may lead to a belief that they are apathetic to development, although that is not necessarily the case.
There are also social activities that take place and have become accepted as a way of life within communities, such as ukubhuqisa (allowing cattle into the fields after harvest) and ukubabela (burning of the grass/veld fires), which take place in winter. These activities are mainly driven by the livestock farming concerns. Ukubhuqisa has its benefits; during winter when the land is extremely dry, the livestock have access to food and simultaneously provide manure for the fields. However, this season is also synonymous with falling fences as livestock try to jump into the fields. Shepherds are often accused of cutting the fencing so the livestock can have convenient access.
Deliberate veld fires are motivated by the desire to speed up the process of growth for new grass for livestock. However, these have been known to destroy crops that have not yet been harvested, burning down forests and also destroying the poles that are used to fence the fields. This results in high maintenance costs for those involved in agricultural development, although it can be avoided.
The dawning of democracy in South Africa introduced other dynamics within communities. The most enduring is the culture of entitlement and political affiliation and influence. Politics has become very significant in rural development circles and therefore it is crucial that the proper protocols are followed in introducing and implementing rural development projects. It is not rare that developments are stopped, because protocols were not observed. This is important, especially since the introduction of local government structures into communities that also have traditional authorities. While the constitution allows the co-existence of these structures, the implementation of its provisions has not been smooth as it has shaken the foundations of traditional institutions and decision-making processes. Particularly because traditional authorities have felt sidelined for a long time.
There is a conscious effort now from all parties to be inclusive and complementary. It is common for community meetings called by the Ward Councillor to be held at the Chieftaincy. The traditional institutions were also challenged, because of structures that had limited or discriminatory gender practices leaving women with limited rights and decision-making powers. This had led to a dramatic shift within traditional structures to involve women in all their activities; the latest attempt being the institutionalisation of democratic and gender-representative tribal councils. This process will hopefully help communities to adjust to the contemporary social setting.
Another shift is the one that was perpetuated by the apartheid government where the labour force could only be employed in urban areas. As alluded to before, this is one of the major characteristics of the previously disadvantaged rural areas. This is accentuated by the low levels of schooling, and how young unemployed people have adopted a culture of crime to sustain high levels of alcohol consumption and drug abuse. There needs to be a shift through the creation of employment opportunities and a provision of services in rural areas that are attractive enough to keep young people attracted. Many households are currently dependent on social grants and have to travel to urban centres for all government services. Although necessary, reliance on social grants has created a culture of dependence on government and as a result rural development practitioners have a responsibility of raising awareness and encouraging communities to utilise their resources wisely for the present and posterity.
From the above arguments, it is clear that development and culture are interlinked, and cannot be separated. Any culture will greatly influence the participation in current developments, because it is shaped by their historical experiences and how they relate to each other and neighbouring areas. In recent years there has been greater admiration of culture in development circles as more emphasis has been put on people involvement and the use of available resources in sustainable development.
The emergence of eco-tourism and rural-based tourism has created a cultural and economic opportunity for rural communities to celebrate the uniqueness of their land, language and customs. Another opportunity is presented by the entrenching of development facilitation in all developments. This contributes towards non-formal developmental education, which encourages communities to take part in decision-making and shaping the cultural development of the people. Coombs and Ahmed (1974:235) argue that non-formal education is an indispensable and potent instrument of rural development. For example, in a previously fragmented society, such as South Africa, people are sceptical of any developments and if proper consultation is not done, development projects could be obstructed by the beneficiaries making them unsustainable.
Where a community through the years has learnt to fight for survival to the extent of getting into criminal means of battle, development practitioners must be aware that the community may utilise those strategies to their detriment, which could lead to theft, destruction and new development projects that are not sustainable. It is therefore crucial for any rural development practitioner within the Eastern Cape to be familiar with what defines the culture of the rural populations before interventions are done so as to mitigate any possible risk as far as possible.
REFERENCES:
• Coetzee J., Graaf J., Hendricks F. and Wood G., 2001. Development - Theory, Policy and Practice. Cape Town: Oxford University Press
• Chambers R. & Conway G.R. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century. Presented as IDS Discussion Paper 296, December 1991. Institute for Development Studies.
• Coombs & Ahmed, 1974. Attacking Rural Poverty. USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press
• Poostchi I., 1986. Rural Development and the Developing Countries. Canada: The Alger Press Limited
• Mbakogu I.A., 2004. Is there really a relationship between Culture and Development? Anthropologist, vol 6, pg 37-43. Kamla-Raj. Accessed from: www.krepublishers.com/.../Anth-06-1-037-043-2004-Mbakogu.pdf